Culture and
society before the arrival of Christianity
Gaelic culture and society was centered around theFine(clann) and, as such, the landscape
and history of Ireland was wrought with relationships, marriages, friendships,
wars, vendettas, trading, and so on. Despite this, Gaelic Ireland had a rich
oral culture and appreciation of deeper and intellectual pursuits.Druids were held in high regard duringpagantimes and orally passed down the
history and traditions of their people. Later, many of their spiritual and
intellectual tasks were passed on to Christian monks. Poetry, music,
storytelling, literature and other art forms were highly prized and cultivated
in both pagan and Christian Gaelic Ireland. The Gaelic order in Ireland, rather
than a single unified kingdom in the feudal sense, was a patchworkofTúatha.
These Túatha often competed for control of resources and thus continually grew
and shrank.
Religion
and mythology
BeforeChristianity, the Gaelic Irish werepagan. They were alsoanimists, believing that all aspects
of the natural world contained spirits, and that these spirits could be
communicated with. Burial practices—which included burying food, weapons, and
ornaments with the dead—suggest a belief inlife
after death. The mythology of Ireland was originally passed down orally, but
much of it was eventually written down by Irish monks.
Settlements and architecture
For most of
this period, dwellings and farm buildings were circular with pointed thatched
roofs. In some areas, buildings were made mostly of stone. In others, they were
built of timber, wattle and daub or a mix of materials.
The
dwellings of freemen and their families were often surrounded by a Ring Fort.
The Ring Fort would typically have enclosed the family home, small farm
buildings or workshops, and animal pens.
Christianity arriving to Ireland –
Summary
·Arrival of Christians to Ireland, approx
430AD, the country was dominated by the Celtic culture that had arrived during
theIron
Age period.
·The people in Ireland were druids including
the Kings and nobles, a challenge for any Christian.
Who brought Christianity to Ireland?
·Many people
believe that St Patrick was
the one responsible for bringing Christianity to Ireland. Although he made a
major impact on Christian Ireland he certainly wasn't the first to arrive here.
·St Palladius was the first
Christian to arrive in Ireland sent over from Rome by the Pope
in 430 AD, two years previous to St Patrick’s arrival. St Palladius wasn't as
successful in converting the Irish and Celtic druids to Christianity as St
Patrick.
The monastic movement in Ireland
·Christian’s in Ireland become known for their
monastic lifestyle, they changed the way Christianity would be taught but also
how they lived.
·They wouldbuild monasteriesin remote places, away from main
villages or towns and they themselves would become the centre of their own
community.
·The monks were extremely intelligent, the
spoke and wrote Latin but also had great skills in art as proven with the
creation of some of the finest illuminated manuscripts such as the Book of Kells.
·These places of worship help produce manyIrish saintswho would go to spread the word of the
lord throughout Ireland, Europe and in some cases further.
Monks also loved to write and they started recording
important events that were occurring in Ireland during their time. They were
also known to record stories or ancient folklorethat
had been handed down to families over generations and some of the stories date
back whenthe Celtshad
become settled in Ireland. This was extremely important in terms of documents
history, without the records from the monks we today would know very littleabout Ireland its early
history.
When answering Question
about an historical artefact:
What did they make? (Form)
Who made it?
Where did they make it?
When did the make it?
How did the make it? (Technique and Decoration)
Why did they make it? (Function)
Ardagh Chalice: Summary
What did they make? (Form)
·A
silver bowl connected to a thick bronze stem by gilt (thin layer of precious
metal) bronze collar. It’s 17.8 cm high and 19.5cm in diameter.
·Perfect
balance between areas of decoration and the plain silver of the bowl and the
foot
·Cone
shaped foot gives it extra stability
Who made it?
·It was assembled by Celtic metalworkers and
metallurgical artists.
Where did they make it?
·According to Celtic
scholars, this example ofearly Christian artwas
probably created by metalworkers at the Clonmacnoise monastery.
When did the make it?
·Archaeological experts are unsure of the exact
date of the chalice. It may be eighth or ninth century.
How did the make it?
·Engraving,
casting, enamelling and cloisonné
·Interlace,
animal interlace, scrolls, plaits and frets in gold wire filigree
·The
chalice is surrounded by a band of gold filigree and red and blue glass studs
·The
names of all the apostles except Judas are engraved lightly into the silver
under the band
·The
handles on both sides are decorated with coloured glass panels in red, blue,
green and yellow. Between these panels are smaller panels of complex and
skilled gold filigree work
·Centre
of each side is a cross within a circle. It is richly decorated with spirals of
gold wire filigree work, coloured glass and a cloisonné enamelled stud in the
cenrtre.
·Under
the rim there is blocks of blue glass separated by panels of interlace and
geometric design
·In
the centre of the underside of the base is a circular crystal surrounded by
gold filigree and green enamels.
Why did they make it? (Function)
·According
to tradition mass used to be said in the Rath (Ring Fort). The chalice may have
been used on these occasions to distribute communion to the multitude that
assembled there. The large size of the chalice points to ceremonial use.
Perhaps when the alarm was raised to signify the approach of soldiers, and in
the hurry of the moment, the chalice was hidden to prevent it from falling into
the wrong hands. This would be supported by the condition in which the items
were found, with neither case nor covering to protect them, suggesting that
they were buried in a hurry. The person who placed them in the earth may never
have had an opportunity of returning to the place to retrieve them.
It’s important when answering the questions in the history paper to
consider the question not as one long essay, but to break it down into 4/5
smaller questions that could be tackled individually paragraph by paragraph. The
questions in the History and Appreciation of Art exam are always worded in a
way that basically lays out your answer
for you. They’ll always ask you to talk about 4/5 topics, so the essay
should pretty much look like:
-Intro (include any random historical/ cultural
points you may know about the particular era to which the question pertains) -Topic 1 -Topic 2 -Topic 3 -Topic 4 -(Topic 5) -Conclusion – personal opinion
Make
a point and expand on it
Make
comparisons where relevant
REFER
BACK TO THE QUESTION
Include
quality sketches as you go
Label
your sketches and include points of information
If your essay is just one
long ramble about all you know about Newgrange, the examiner will just get
annoyed because (s)he has to search you entire answer for any points you made
that are actually relevant. If you lay it out in the most stupidly obvious way,
paragraph by paragraph, possibly with headings (“Form”, “Function”, “Techniques
used” etc., whatever it says in the question) not only will you keep the
examiner happy (and likely to give you more marks), but you’ll be less inclined
to rant or veer off the point, which is possibly the worst thing you can do in
any exam.
Writing Style
You can use a
traditional style essay in which points are developed in paragraphs with an
introduction and conclusion or a combination of paragraphs and bullet points.
Use the essay writing you have developed for Leaving Cert. Textbooks are
designed to give you the facts only. Your essay should be individual and
reflect your reactions to the artworks. Make it your own!
Sketches
Each exam answer MUST be
illustrated. Remember 10 marks are allotted for your sketches – that’s a fifth
of each question. Sketches should analyse the work of art or make a visual
point. Each sketch must be labelled and notes added. If there’s an image
provided with the question then illustrating this will not suffice.
Marks are allocated by
the amount of information the sketch conveys to the examiner.
Writing an individual
essay
Instead of re writing
the passages straight from the textbook, give your essay a personality of its
own.
Try and see art works first hand – this is bound to
enrich your response.
Use sources like the internet or library books to look
at images in colur. Take as much time as you can to absorb there
wounderful works of art, which have stood the test of time!
Read about the art works and the artists who made them.
Imagine what the artists were thinking: appreciate their efforts.
Now tell the reader! Include the facts, of course, but
make your essay really interesting.
Describe what you see with enthusiasm and mean it. Let
your reponse come from the heart. Use the words that are meaningful to
you.
Essay Writing Tips
1. Answer the Question.
This is the first and most important suggestion. Answering the wrong
question is a common mistake made by students. Unfortunately, it can be a real
disaster for the grade you get in an exam. Make sure you understand what the
examiner wants; it is highly advisable to refer back to the question throughout
the answer. This point may sound like stating the obvious; but, answering the
wrong question can be the biggest cause of a disappointing exam result.
2. Good Introduction.
In an introduction to an essay you should offer a short, concise summary
of the main points to be raised. If appropriate, you could clarify key
concepts. Introductions go wrong when students go into too much detail, and then repeat their arguments in the main body of
the text. Generally speaking, it is advisable to start off with short
sentences, rather than complex sentences. This will help create clarity of
thought and purpose.
3. Essay Plan.
A plan can help to gather your thoughts, and make sure you do not forget
to mention key arguments. It is an opportunity to brainstorm what you know
about the topic. However, it is important not to get into too much detail –
writing keywords and phrases are the best solution.
When a question makes a statement, always discuss that statement fully,
It is not enough to say “I agree with that statement” and simply carry on. Include
your own opinions based on the facts from your studies.
5. Conclusion.
In a conclusion you can weigh up the different arguments and decide
which are the strongest and most relevant. A conclusion should try to add
something new, and not just repeat previous points. For example, you can say
why an argument is particularly strong and give justification.
Know the meaning of the question words...
List Just give the key words, no need to write long sentences
Name Simple answer, no need to write any explanation
Compare this means you should give the similarities and the differences
between two things
Contrast This means you need to only list the differences between two
things
Outline Give the main points, it’s the same as "explain briefly"
With the
aid of a diagram this means there are marks
going for your diagram
Give an
illustrated account is another way of saying a diagram
is expected
Describe This means give a fuller, longer answer
Explain Again this means you need to give a fuller, longer answer with several
points. Look at the marks being awarded to get an idea how long your answer
should be.
Plurals Keep an eye out for plurals as this will give you an idea of how much
information is required. “Give a reason for…” and “Give reasons for…”
are different questions.
And Lots of students go wrong here. The word “and” in a question means
there are marks going for the part before the “and” as well as after the “and”.
Many students lose marks by only answering the second part of the question.
e.g. Give examples of how wave action creates anddestroys our
coastlines.
WRITING AN
EXAMINATION ESSAY
You should spend time reading
the question and be sure that you understand what is involved. An effective plan can make the task of essay writing more
straightforward. The following points may be useful to remember.
DO Include a brief introduction, the main body of the essay and
a conclusion.
DO Indicate briefly in the introduction the ideas, areas or
issues you intend to cover and your line of argument.
DO Use technical terms for precision and speed as a kind of
academic shorthand E.g. once you have explained impasto(paintis laid on an area of the surface
(or the entirecanvas) very thickly, usually thickly
enough that thebrushorpainting-knifestrokes are visible), you do not have to explain it again.
DO In the main body of the essay discuss each of the areas
mentioned in the introduction. Include relevant argument and details.
DO Make sure that each area is discussed in a separate
paragraph or paragraphs.
DO Refer back to the question from time to time to check for
relevance. It is easy to get carried away and regurgitate a lot of pre-learnt
material. It may be factually accurate, but is it relevant to the question?
DO Make sure the conclusion is relevant to the information used
and the question asked.
DON.T Attempt to write an essay without thinking first of what
you are going to include and the order in which you are going to write it.
DON.T Plunge straight into writing the essay without giving the
reader some idea of what you are going to write about.
DON.T Needlessly explain ideas which are accepted as a part of
your basic knowledge. E.g. define what a sculptor does.
DON.T Use technical terms purely to impress.
DON.T Mix different areas or ideas in the same paragraph.
DON.T Put
paragraphs anywhere. They are not intended just to make the page look more
decorative.
DON.T Forget to
back up your ideas and arguments with relevant evidence and examples.
DON.T Introduce new
material into the conclusion.
PHOTOGRAPHIC
QUESTIONS Each Paper includes a question based on a colour photograph.
As it is a photographic question you will need to look closely
at the colour reproduction to arrive at the answer. What if I have never seen
the image before? Do not panic. Even though you might never have seen the
image, you will have seen something similar. Use the questions as clues. Use
general knowledge and think in terms of the type of image it is.
ILLUSTRATION
Remember to illustrate your answer. As much as ten points
out of fifty are awarded for the illustration. Illustrate each section of your
answer. Be sure to annotate the illustration in order to explain the
significance of it to the text and the points you are making.
PAST PAPERS
Past papers, in conjunction with marking schemes are useful in
preparing for examination. These are a precious source of information. See the
Examinations Commission Website and click on the Examination Material Archive
link to access past papers:http://www.examinations.ie/
Not much factual history is known previous to the arrival of the Christians to Ireland as they had become the first people to actually document historic events here.
By the time of their arrival in Ireland, approx 430AD, the country was dominated by the Celtic culture that had arrived during the Iron Age period. The people in Ireland were druids including the Kings and nobles, a challenge for any Christian.
Who brought Christianity to Ireland?
Many people believe that St Patrick was the one responsible for bringing Christianity to Ireland. Although he made a major impact on Christian Ireland he certainly wasn’t the first to arrive here. St Palladius was the first Christian to arrive in Ireland sent over from Rome by the Pope in 430AD, two years previous to St Patrick’s arrival. St Palladius wasn’t as successful in converting the Irish and Celtic druids to Christianity as St Patrick.
The monastic movement in Ireland
Christian’s in Ireland become known for their monastic (simple) lifestyle, they changed the way Christianity would be taught but also how they lived. They would build monasteries in remote places, away from main villages or towns and they themselves would become the centre of their own community. The monks were extremely intelligent, the spoke and wrote Latin but also had great skills in art as proven with the creation of some of the finest illuminated manuscripts such as the Book of Kells. These places of worship help produce many Irish saints who would go to spread the word of the lord throughout Ireland, Europe and in some cases further.
Monks also loved to write and they started recording important events that were occurring in Ireland during their time. They were also known to record stories or ancient that had been handed down to families over generations and some of the stories date back when the Celts had become settled in Ireland. This was extremely important in terms of documents history, without the records from the monks we today would know very little about Ireland its early history.
After Christianity was introduced to Ireland the Irish Church set about re-introducing Christianity to Europe after the collapse of the Roman Empire, they set-up religious settlements in France, and Italy. They spread the gospel to places like Germany and beyond where previously the word Christianity had not been heard.
The seventh century saw the start of the Irish Golden Age when schools of art, learning and missionary endeavour sprang up throughout Ireland. Under the patronage of monasteries and the wealthy elite Irish craftsmen produced some of Europe’s finest early medieval decorated manuscripts and artefacts of gold, silver and stone.
Schools of art
In this period continental and Anglo-Saxon art influences were combined by Irish craft workers to create an insular art style. (The term derives frominsula, theLatinterm for "island"; in this periodGreat BritainandIrelandshared a largely common style different from that of the rest of Europe.) Innovations in sculpture, ornamental metalwork, manuscript illumination and architecture, coincided with developments in literature, language and grammar and the establishment of new church practices.
Styles of art
The elaborate motifs and scenes executed in stone on the High Crosses reflect not only the skill of the stonemasons but also highlight the transfer of artistic concepts and designs between the crafts of stone, metal and manuscript illumination of the period. As free standing sculptures, Irish high crosses dominated the architecture of Ireland’s main church settlements
Although the Romans never invaded Ireland their influences travelled through trade and contact with them. One feature that travelled was writing based on the Roman alphabet known as ‘ogham’.
Oghamis anEarly Medievalalphabetused primarily to write theearly Irish language(in the so-called"orthodox" inscriptions, 4th to 6th centuries), and later theOld Irishlanguage (so-calledscholastic ogham, 6th to 9th centuries). There are roughly 400 surviving orthodox inscriptions on stone monuments throughout Ireland and western Britain; the bulk of them are in the south of Ireland, in Counties Kerry, Cork and Waterford. We developed into a civilisation getting the island the title of ‘Saints and Scholars’.
Metalwork 8th-12th
•During the Christian era, new artistic traditions developed in Ireland
fusing Germanic art with traditions from the Roman world and traditions around the Mediterranean. These fused to the La Tene style art. This style was found in manuscript illumination i.e. the Book of Durrow. And so began the link between the style of manuscripts and metalwork of the 7th and 8th centuries.
•
600 A.D. fine Irish craftsmen changed considerably from the late Iron Age. Solid silver objects had appeared, enamel was used more and the new technique of millefori glass (method of producing motifs by covering a cane of glass with layers of different coloured glass and cutting into short lengths) had been adopted.
•Now new types of objects were fashionable i.e. large pins for fastening garments and penannular brooches. There were workshops all over the country i.e. monastic site at Armagh and Ballinderry Crannog Co. Offaly. Penannular brooch got its name because of the gap in the ring which was developed from a Roman military-style brooch.
•Motifs in metalwork were also suitable for manuscripts. The colouring in manuscripts was approached in the coloured enamel in metalwork.
•8th century shows a huge range of techniques, all over decorations various effects found in other traditions.
•New techniques such as:
Gold Filigree
Filigreeis a delicate kind of jewellery metalwork, usually of gold and silver, made with tiny beads or twisted threads, or both in combination, soldered together or to the surface of an object of the same metal and arranged in artistic motifs.
Gilding
The term gilding covers a number of decorative techniques for applying fine gold leaf or powder to solid surfaces such as wood, stone, or metal to give a thin coating of gold.
•Early 8th century era known as the ‘Golden Age’…… time of perfection.
Ballinderry Brooch
•Ballinderry Brooch, Co. Offaly 600A.D. National Museum of Ireland.
•Millefori glass in the little plate on the terminals, along with sunken areas of red enamel.
•Decorated with bands of lines, hatching and herringbone design.
•Full circle of bronze with a pin attached which would fasten through the garment.
Rinnagan Crucifixion Plaque
•Rinnagan, Co. Rosscommon. National Museum of Ireland. Late 7th century.
•Also known as St. John’s crucifixion plaque.
•Possibly acted as a book cover suggested by several holes surrounding the piece.
•Made from bronze. Main attention directed to the face of Christ. Nailed feet point downwards, arms outstretched and nailed to the cross.
•Design combines herringbone pattern, spirals and zigzags. Ornament on the garment is La Tene style. Christ wears a long sleeved garment with interlace at the wrists. Around Christ small angels, they attend to Christ with spiral designs on their wings too.
Ardagh Chalice
•Ardagh Chalice, National Museum of Ireland
•Found in 1868 near Ardagh, Co. Limerick by a boy digging potatoes. It was found with four brooches and a bronze chalice. Must have been part of the collection of a rich monastery.
•Simple design using gold and silver, moulded coloured glass and light engraving. There are large areas free of decoration. But the decoration used elsewhere involves plain interlace and animal interlace, scrolls, plaits and frets in gold wire filigree. Other techniques used are engraving, casting, enamelling and cloisonne, a method of enamelling which separates the colours with thin strips of metal.
•The three main elements of the chalice are the bowl, stem and broad foot.
•Complex gold filigree work forms a band around the chalice broken by red and blue glass studs. Under this band, engraved lightly into the silver, are the names of all the apostles except Judas.
•The bowl of the chalice is joined to the base by a thick bronze stem. Stem is heavily gilded (thin layer of gold impressed on to the metal). Here the decoration is the most intricate and involved of all. The base is formed by a cone-shaped foot around which is a decorated flange for extra stability. This flange has square blocks of the blue glass separated by panels of interlace and geometric ornament.
•In the centre of the underside of the base is a circular crystal surrounded by gold filigree and green enamels. The outer edge of the flange underside is divided into eight, with six copper studs and two silver.
•The handles on both sides are a concentrated area of rich colours and patterns. Decorated with coloured glass panels in red, blue, green and yellow, in between are tiny panels of complex and skilled gold wire filigree work, coloured glass and a cloisonne enamelled stud in the centre.
•The gold filigrees of the Ardagh Chalice and the Tara Brooch were apparently derived from Germanic work, reaching new heights of elaboration and minuteness
Tara Brooch
•Tara Brooch, National Museum of Ire, 8th century
•Found near the seashore of Bettystown Co. Meath after the cliff collapsed by a jeweller and named it Tara and it remained.
•It’s a form of penannular brooch based on a Roman design. No particular Christian connection. Most likely to be made for the personal adornment of a queen or king or bishop.
•It is tiny and is a ring brooch. And there is no gap which the pin can pass through so it is called a pseudo-brooch chains and loops are needed for fastening a chain like this.
•The point where the chain joins the brooch is beautifully decorated: two glass studs in the form of human heads.
•Made of bronze, back covered in copper and glass studs, front with gold, amber and glass. Gold is worked into filigree panels, some of which have fallen off.
•Decorated with spirals, loops, animal and bird heads.
•Back of brooch is also highly decorated. There are two plates. La Tene style is dark against a silver background. Chain is attached to the brooch by two animal heads at each end of a little plate. Two human heads lie in the centre of this plate. These human faces are purple.
•Straight pin with triangular head with gold filigree, amber and glass.
•Cast and gilded kerbschnitt ornament appears on the shaft and head of the pin. Occurs also on the inner and outer edges of the ring. Kerbschnitt is a method of casting which imitates wood carving - chip carving.
Derrynaflan Hoard
•National Museum of Ire, mid 8th century. Found at an ancient monastery of Derrynaflan, Co. Tipperary in recent years.
•The hoard contained a chalice very similar to the Ardagh Chalice. Suggesting this may have been a common design to the Irish Church. The hoard also contained a silver paten and a beautiful strainer-ladle
•The paten contains such techniques as filigree, enamelling, casting, stamping of thin gold and knitting of wire mesh.
The Viking Invasion – 9th & 10th Century
The Vikings conducted extensive raids inIrelandat first they foundedLimerickin 812, then established a settlement nearWaterfordin 853, invaded Dublinand maintained control until 1169, and founded trading ports inCorkin the 9th century. The Vikings and Scandinavians settled down and intermixed with the Irish. Literature, crafts, and decorative styles in Ireland and Britain reflected Scandinavian culture. Vikings traded at Irish markets in Dublin. Excavations found imported fabrics from England, Byzantium, Persia and central Asia. Dublin became so crowded by the 11th century that houses were constructed outside the town walls.
The Vikings pillaged monasteries on Ireland's west coast in 795 and then spread out to cover the rest of the coastline. The north and east of the island were most affected. During the first 40 years, the raids were conducted by small, mobile Viking groups. By 830, the groups consisted of large fleets of Viking ships. From 840, the Vikings began establishing permanent bases at the coasts. Dublin was the most significant settlement in the long term. The Irish became accustomed to the Viking presence. In some cases they became allies and married each other.
Metalwork 11th and 12th Century
•Artistic production declined during the 9th and 10th century but continued in the production of stone crosses.
•The 11th and 12th century was a period of peace between the Vikings and the coming of the Normans, stoneworkers and metalworkers produced works of art equally.
•Almost all metalwork was produced for the church consisting mainly of highly ornamented shrines and reliquaries connected with Irish saints.
•Shrines like the Cross of Cong and the Shine of St Patrick’s Bell
were made to hold objects or relics associated with the saints such as books or bells. While objects like the Shrine of St Lachtin’s arm may have been to hold bones of a saint.
•Processional cross, in the centre a crystal rock set in the silver mount and surrounded by gold filigree. Tubular silver edging surrounds the gently curved outline of the cross punctuated by bossed rivets. Cross surface divided into sections of cast bronze thread-like snakes holding animal shapes.
•The staff and cross are linked by animal jaws biting the base of the cross. animals have scaled heads, pointed ribbed snouts, little curved ears and blue glass eyes. Below these heads is an ornate knob similar to that found on croziers.
•Shrine of St Patrick’s Bell (first picture)
•Clonmacnoise crozier (second picture)
•Great care was taken creating these objects.
•In the Irish Christian Church, croziers were held in great reverence. It is one of the finest in Europe of this time.
•One notable feature of the metalwork is the blend of Scandinavian influences, seen through the use of animal imagery, with native Irish work.
•Craftsmanship shows high patronage by the rich and well-to-do clans and royalty.
•Shrine of St Patrick’s Bell, early 12th century. Has a tapering body and curved top. Front covered with a gilt silver frame in which there were originally 30 gold filigree panels. Variety of intertwined single or animal pairs forming regular figure eight shapes. Large rock crystal occupies the centre space. On the back, series of interlocking crosses pierced into a silver frame against a bronze background. Sides are decorated with panels of animal interlace separated by a circular cross. Rings at sides suggest it was meant to be carried.
•Clonmacnoise crozier, early 12th century
Formed by two tubes of bronze wrapped around a wooden staff finished with a curved crook. Crook is hollow with animal interlace in silver, edged with niello (black mixture of copper, silver, and lead sulphides) inlay down the sides. Front of crook, grotesque bearded human head with staring eyes. Behind this a crest running down the curve of the crook. The crest formed by a series of dog-like animals. Base of the crook, front and back formed with grotesque animal heads. Under the base, two pairs of cat-like animals standing with arched backs and legs entertwined and twisted tails
Gaelic culture and society was centered around the Fine (clann) and, as such, the landscape
and history of Ireland was wrought with relationships, marriages, friendships,
wars, vendettas, trading, and so on. Despite this, Gaelic Ireland had a rich
oral culture and appreciation of deeper and intellectual pursuits. Druids were held in high regard during pagan times and orally passed down the
history and traditions of their people. Later, many of their spiritual and
intellectual tasks were passed on to Christian monks. Poetry, music,
storytelling, literature and other art forms were highly prized and cultivated
in both pagan and Christian Gaelic Ireland. The Gaelic order in Ireland, rather
than a single unified kingdom in the feudal sense, was a patchwork of Túatha.
These Túatha often competed for control of resources and thus continually grew
and shrank. 
Settlements and architecture
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